World War 2 Historical Qestions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

World War 2 Historical Qestions - Assignment Example As World War 11 begun to brew by the second, the Unites States was perusing a national policy of â€Å"Isolationism†. The United States wanted to avoid all war and focus on different things like domestic/family household issues, restoring the economy, anti-immigration ect. Two days after the European War begun, the United States declared its neutrality. The USA would not be involved in the war and would romaine neutral until we were attacked and needed to fight back. As stated on page 771, â€Å"When war broke out in 1914 Woodrow Wilson had told Americans to be neutral â€Å"In thought as well as In action.† FDR, by contrast, now said: â€Å"This nation will remain a neutral nation, but I cannot ask that every American remain neutral in thought as well.† Also, in 1940 the United States instituted the first peacetime draft in American history. The FDR then declared, â€Å"We must be the great arsenal of democracy.†(Page 771) The United States isolationists even formed the, America First Committee (AFC). The AFC let everyone know that we were not getting involved, for example on page 771 it says, â€Å" The AFC held rallies across the United States, and its posters, brochures, and broadside warning against American involvement†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Some sources of American Political isolation are Time Magazine, photographers, journalists and more.

Constitution and Administrative Law Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Constitution and Administrative Law - Coursework Example The case was held by Lord Reid, that it was the state was liability to compensate the damage caused to the Japanese. This was awarded successfully. However, there was a retrospective Act of parliament that was formed 1965 following war damages. This law outlined that no compensation was to be awarded following a lawful order from a legitimate person in authority, as long as it is in the favor of the state. A Law is a body of principles; rules and regulations recognized and applicable to a state in the management of justice.3 Due to different areas of their application, laws are grouped into different categories such as constitutional law, administration law, and criminal law among the others. Constitutional law is concerned with the powers and role of institutions within the state and with the relationship between the state and the citizen.4 The constitution is a lively, dynamic entity which at any point in time; reflects the political and moral values of the people it governs. Accordingly, the law of the constitution must be appreciated within the social and political context in which it operates. There are three major arms of government including the judiciary, legislature, and executive. Judiciary is concerned with the enforcement of rules and regulations in the society. The main role of the legislature is to create and amend laws. The executive arm of government is concerned with planning and implementation of plans and developmental roles of government in the society. Every government has a law making body that is concerned with the amendments and creation of new laws in the society.5 Law changes and nature of rules are meant to boost efficiency and effectiveness of the governance of the people in the society. â€Å"The law making body of government is referred to as legislature and parliament is the sovereign body of the legislation in most states†6 Parliament being the sovereign legislative body has sole jurisdiction over its

Relationship Between Textiles and Architecture

Relationship Between Textiles and Architecture The Reconciliation of Craft in Architecture as Facilitated by Textiles Abstract This dissertation analyses the enduring relationship between architecture and textiles. Using textiles as a facilitator, the wider relationship between craft and architecture will be explored. The link between architecture and textiles harkens back to an age when woven fibers provided the primitive dwelling of man, developed in various forms throughout history. The significance of this relationship will be examined in particular through the views of nineteenth century architect Gottfried Semper and twentieth century textile artist Anni Albers. With technological advancement in the age of industrialisation, the apparent discourse and perceptions of textile use within the realm of architecture is explored. The distinction between textile use in art and architecture leads to the discussion of surface and structure within the built environment. The question as to what extent tactile and textile based materials allow us to humanise our built environment will be examined. It could be argued that the development of indigenous design has now caught up with the pace of the twenty-first centurys needs and desire for communication and manufacturing. Architecture has reached a point where the contradiction between structure and ornament is no longer apparent. Ornamentation has now become an option, not just an unnecessary expense. A critical re-examination in attitude to that of the twentieth century ‘ornament is a crime, aided by digitalisation is reviving textiles from its confines in the interior to a more multifunctional and overall structural state. It is arguable that this re-examination in attitude can lead to a reconciliation of craft within architecture. In examining the definition of craft within architecture, this dissertation will explore historical and contemporary aspects of designing and making in the process of creating buildings. The future of textiles in architecture is being pioneered in contemporary design. Particular focus is given to the concepts, forms, patterns, materials, processes, technologies and practices that are being produced with the collaboration of textile architecture. While there is wide recognition for the visual aspect of textile in architecture, new aspects of tactile tectonics, sensuous and soft constructivism are growing acclaim. There is much evidence to suggest that the preoccupation of textile in contemporary design challenges traditional perception and the very structure of architecture itself. The conclusion will argue that by applying the traditional idea of craftsmanship in the knowledge of designing and making as one holistic activity to new developments within textile inspired procedures, craft can be reconciled within architecture, as Seamus Heaney speaks of, ‘two orders of knowledge, the practical and the poetic.[1] This can in turn transform contemporary building processes at a level suitable for todays challenges in society and culture. This raises possibilities of how the concepts of the avant-garde designs of many of todays more innovative architecture can be used and realised in the present state and future of architecture and the city. Key words: textiles, humanise, visual, tactile, conceptual, hybrid, digital augmented-processes, making, craftsmanship History, origin and relationship between textiles and architecture The relationship between textiles and architecture starts with corresponding beginning. Their vast history starts from the role of providing shelter, shade and protection in the building envelope, the ‘skin, originating from crudely stitched animal skins. The history, form and expression of physical woven construction and the use of membranes exist from the light tent structures of human habitation. The significance of the connection between the two disciplines allows and carries ‘complex imprints of geographical, cultural, social and personal influences.'[2] Textiles are a powerful medium, rich with symbolic meaning and aesthetic significance. They remain ‘sources of communication and manifestations of power, fibrous forms consisting in present day ‘fashions, vehicles, interior textiles, communication technologies and cutting-edge architecture'[3]. As people became more settled, and with the erection of more solid dwellings, textile use in architecture became somewhat neglected and confined to the interiors. There is the question of the practicality as to what extent textiles could continue to be used for weather and visual protection after the development of mechanisms and insulation within the built environment. Some traditional textile materials and structure have continued to be used to present day in some parts of the world; examples including coverings over markets and stalls and basic protection such as an umbrella in Nepal as shown below: A review of the work of the nineteenth century German architect and theoretician Gottfried Semper (1803-1879) points to the significance of textiles and architecture. Semper remains certain that the ‘beginning of buildings coincides with the beginning of textiles.[4] Throughout his work, Semper gave emphasis to textiles, offering a western perspective on his interpretations of the origin of architecture. He maintained that textile processes were the principal element, from which the ‘earliest basic structural artefact was that of the knot'[5]. Semper goes as far as to state that architecture originated from the primordial need to distinguish interior and exterior spaces with dividers, ‘fencing made of branches, for example, or hanging tapestries of woven grasses.'[6] Semper showed a high level of understanding of textile arts, its adaptability, transformable state and functional elements, seeking to: â€Å"Transform raw materials with the appropriate properties into products, whose common features are great pliancy and considerable absolute strength, sometimes serving in threaded and banded forms as bindings and fastenings, sometimes used as pliant surfaces to cover, to hold, to dress, to enclose, and so forth†[7] There is much evidence to suggest that textiles share an indissoluble links with architecture, dress and the ‘fabric of society.'[8] Sempers theorys on fabric encompasses his principle of ‘bekelidungsprinzip (dressing), that rather than an abstract skin, the fabric and faà §ade of an architectural space is a functional part of the structure, ‘a tectonic figuration conceived according to the purpose and convenience of the use expected from a building.'[9] His ideas of the relationship between the architectural faà §ade as a dressing and skin refer to how cloth could be used to transform the human figure. However, Semper understood a ‘buildings aesthetic, symbolic and even spiritual significance to reside in its decorative surface.'[10] He believed that over time, memory informed building types, retaining the ‘symbolic forms of their earliest architectural predecessors. He believed the geometric patterns of brick and stone walls were ‘an active mem ory of the ancient weavings from which they were derived. [11] This leads us to the perception of tactile and textile qualities within the built environment. Attitudes and perceptions towards tactile and textile use in the built environment The previous chapter emphasises the importance of textile as a structure, distinguisher between the interior and exterior and establishing a sense of place. While he is adamant about the relevance of textiles within architecture, it is arguable that for centuries the value of textiles as a material was reduced to little significance. Furthermore, textiles can be seen to have been largely excluded from use in a majority of architecture theory and production. It could be argued that one aspect of textiles being somewhat dismissed within the realm of architecture is a result of architecture being portrayed as exclusive and elitist. The separation between textiles and architecture can be seen as dating form the Renaissance. There existed prejudicial distinctions between the importance of ‘minor arts such as craft and textiles, and the ‘major arts of architecture. Distinctions as the art critic Barbara Rose states in New York Magazine, 1972, ‘imposed at the end of the Mi ddle Ages when the guilds disappeared to be replaced by the Renaissance academies.'[12] While movements such as Art Nouveau and the Arts and Crafts pointed towards architecture that had a direct relationship with arts, the discourse between crafts could be seen to be at its highest point during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries with the event of industrialisation and modernism. The modernist purist concept lay in the emphasis on purism and functionalism of the architecture itself. It can be argued that the architectural focus on rationalism began to isolate and neglect the spiritual and humanising qualities of a building. The conflicting aspects between the modern movement and a lack of humanistic architecture can be seen through various sources. Adolf Loos twentieth century manifesto stating the removal of ornamentation is synonymous with ‘the evolution of culture'[13], had a large impact on the development of our built environment. Some feel that this restricted us from: â€Å"A language in which visual thoughts, worldly ideas, communal ethos, and memories may be directly deposited and communicated within the substance of material objects.†[14] While architects such as Le Corbusier clearly expressed their rejection of ornament, believing in that ‘form follows function, contradictions can be clearly seen with his passion and participation in the tapestry revival. Tapestries have proved an impacting force in the discussion of textiles and architecture. While it is arguable that the high period of tapestry of art can be acknowledged to be the medieval era, new developments in the late 1920s, ‘instead of a woven picture on a wall, tapestry became a wall'[15]. He considered them a ‘mural-nomad a portable mural. The addition of hanging woven reliefs after the modernist era can be seen as an attempt to â€Å"humanise the ‘brutalist architecture of the 70s.† [16] A leading figure in avant-garde tapestry is maker Tadek Beutlich, originally from Poland. His work below, ‘Archangel is eight-foot wide, feathers made out of sisal and other fibres, portraying his mastered technique of weaving, braiding, wrapping, plaiting, ravelling and unravelling. His display of enormous weavings and fiber based installations of such scale and tactile nature, bringing into question the industry versus the hand. Some textile arts can be seen as architectural by encompassing the surface they are attached to with such scale and magnitude. Sheila Hicks wall hanging shows how thread begins to take form of a structure, manipulated and composed like a ‘single brick transformed through structural multiplication into a wall'[17]. The French philosopher Claude Levi Strauss goes as far as to comment on Hicks work that: â€Å"Nothing better than this art could provide altogether the adornment and the antidote for the functional, utilitarian architecture in which we are sentenced to dwell.† The Bauhaus school, renowned for its promotion of a new architectural style, was actually founded for the arts and crafts. However emphasis passed to materials and construction in order to meet the social and technological requirements of the twentieth-century architecture and industrial design. Anni Albers is an example of a weaver at the Bauhaus whose tapestries reflect the chance and spirit of the time. It is arguable that as the ‘ethical and intellectual commitments were made and new materials and processes embraced, visceral and emotional aspects diminished. However the Bauhaus remains an important influence in the expression of materials and structure, rediscovering the ‘importance of expressing texture, structure, and broken colour and in finding new aspects of pattern with the vertical-horizontal format of woven cloth'[18]. Through an investigation between the similarities that exist between the art of weaving and the realisation of architecture, it is clear that the concepts overlap. Both of the nineteenth and twentieth century theorists Semper and Anni Albers, expressed how the similarities between architects and weavers go beyond surface appearance. Textiles within a space can affect the atmosphere, light, climate, acoustics and spatial arrangements. It is recognised that quality can be achieved by relating the physical properties of their work with aesthetic implications and the inherent and underlying aspect of structure. Anni Albers reinforces the architects and weavers common interests: â€Å"Surface quality of material, that is matià ¨re, being mainly a quality of appearance, is an aesthetic quality and therefore a medium of the artist; while quality of inner structure is, above all, a matter of function and therefore the concern of the scientist and engineer. Sometimes material surface together with material structure are the main components of a work; in textile works for instance, specifically in weavings or, on another scale, in works of architecture†[19] (really interesting but itsnt is also an indictment that we dont accept that surface also requires inherent structure) Albers reinforces the importance of textiles within the future of architecture, stating that â€Å"similarities between structural principles of weaving and those of architecture â€Å"textiles, so often no more than an after thought in planning, might take a place again as a contributing thought† [20]. Textile revival For the last several decades, expanded by recent technological advances in textiles, the craft of using textiles conceptually and visually has been gaining recognition, reframing its domestic connotations and the confines of the interior. The next generation of textiles is ‘heralded by technological interfaces, programmable surfaces and architectonic capabilities.'[21] A rejection of European modernism and ideas of universality, textiles as a craft is covering new conceptual ground. Textiles is forging an ever closer relationship with architecture, the two disciplines merging with surface and structure. New sources of sustainable materials are providing another aspect into how the human body is experiences and the urban environment built. Computer technology is inviting new relationships between craft and architecture: â€Å"By exploiting the singular meanings of textile forms, structure, and processes, these textile artists are sometimes placed outside the general art discourse.†[22] Textiles can be described as a medium â€Å"without clear, self-defining boundaries or limitations.†[23] Architects and artists from the 1990s have shown increased vigour in unravelling the essential nature of textiles. Having recaptured with the historical importance of textiles, their attention turned to infusing the same level of emphasis into textiles within the built environment. Some have commented on the flexibility and adaptability of the medium, acting â€Å"as a vacuum sucking up new materials, techniques, and modes of expression. It has changed its form, size, psychology, and philosophical stance.†[24] What unifies designers and artists as a driving force in the creative field of surface design is their enthusiasm for the dimensional possibilities inherent in cloth. There is a fascination by some about the idea of cloth holding the memory of action performed on it; â€Å"It is for each generation to expand the vocabulary of approaches to cloth.†[25] This aspect of working with fabric is directed towards the history and memory of fabric, focusing on expressionism; an emotional connection to objects and a tactile spatial awareness. It is arguable that the uniqueness of the craft of textiles in relation to design and architecture lays in the personal input from the individual maker. Critics and scholars have â€Å"long recognised that the quality of art lies in concept and quality of insight, not in materials and tools†. (state diff textile design +art, textile designers that design +someone else manufactures-how fit into argument ? ) Matthew Koumis highlights how the establishment of textiles applied in a space can differ according to Western and Japanese environments. Koumis points out that in the West a basic element in the hanging of tapestries was to decorate walls of brick or stone, modifying and softening the space. However, These walls didnt exist in traditional Japanese homes where structures were supported by wooden beams. Some argue that the ‘fasuma and shoj (made from wood and paper) exhibit ‘textile characteristics and they can take on ‘textile functions, ‘representing a further development of traditional textile membrane materials.[26] While Japanese houses do not have designated purposes, textiles or tactile surfaces can be used to designate the function of the space: â€Å"Their contents, and especially their design elements, vary according to the use of the room at any one time. Cloth is often involved in bringing about such changes.† [27] Ornamentation Decoration has been used throughout time to apply meaning and a sense of belonging in shelters. It could be argued that textiles as a form of decoration plays a vital role in establishing a buildings identity. It can describe the function, visually define the spaces and offer up claims as to a sense of the owner or users personality. While cost factor and lack of funding in public arts can be seen as one element, artistic adornment has now reached a stage, aided by digitalisation, that can now be seen as a viable option and not just an unnecessary expense. There is a hope that this can again restore peoples pride in their environment and a representation of their culture. There is much argument to suggest that the diminished financial support for public art and corporate collections has led to: â€Å"the convergence of industrial and digital production techniques in textiles capture the essence of labor-intensive hand-craft that is lost or cannot be achieved due to economic conditions and symbolize a contemporary design spirit.† [28] A reversal in attitude towards Adolf Loos ‘Ornament is a Crime is taking place. As such, the work of artists, designers and architects are using technological advances that revive ornament and placing them at the forefront of design. Can you give evidence? And refs on this Designers such as Tord Boontje are reviving a new style of ornament taking the intention of pre-modern design and making it ‘new. His investigation into the relationship between materials, structures, and surfaces, fleshing out the relationship between craft, design and technology.[29] Boontje sees ‘design as a way of shaping the future of our world,[30] combining nature and culture, the oldest and latest materials and technologies, forms, functions and colour combinations, and the (most importantly) Be clear about why you are using him as a ref aesthetic of ornament. The computer programmer Andrew Allenson who has collaborated with Boontje, sees a relationship between craft and technology, â€Å"Architects and designers can get bogged down in professional management and policy. Tord shows you can be more concerned with process and integrity and self-belief. Ive always thought there is a similarity between craft and software.† [31] Again be sure what is improatnt about quote and why you need to use it this starts on one track and only comes to the track you want at the end Boontje has taken a new manifestation of function, understanding elements of design from a new point of view and rejoicing in the freedom it has engendered him. Engendered him to what? Like the architect and philospher†¦.Morris (William?), Boontje looks at history and acknowledges a wish for social engagement and the beauty of use based on a response to nature, but Boontje has, as †¦ says (date) â€Å"extended Morriss legacy by achieving globalised industrial production and embracing the latest technology.† [32] Fabric is used throughout Boontjes work with technical innovation, laser-cutting and digital printing. Due to the unpredictable nature of fabric with its elasticity and deformational properties, Boontje realises the difficulty in working with fabric. This unpredictability can also be turned to advantage, collaborating with Swiss and Japanese manufacturers to create a clear expression. Textile and paper are filtered throughout his work, multiple layers being manipulated to create soft definitions of space with nature acting as a dominant influence. Boontje emphasises the importance of textiles and its relationship to ourselves and the wider society; â€Å"For cloth, like the body, is a mediating surface through which we encounter the world.† [33] Boontje is also crossing the discipline between textiles into architecture, experimenting in ‘fabric room, as shown below. He states his fascination by ‘the way a draped fabric folds itself in very organic shapes, and realises the insulating properties of the cloth, providing ‘warmth in the winter and coolness in the summer. [34] Explain the relevance of this draw out the argument†¦ and does this sit under title digital ornamentation The possibility of craft within textile architecture Link textile + craft. Say textiles craft wider issues of how craft enhance environment. Applicable to textiles craftsmanship. End pt clear argument This dissertation will begin to examine the possibility of craft within textile architecture, first beginning with the definition of craftsmanship within architecture, to theories in relation to making with the hand and how the issue of craft resides with new technological advancement. Finally, I will come to a conclusion as to how the craft of textiles raises new possibilities towards a reconciliation of the traditional meaning of craftsmanship, combined with new methods and material matter through use of digital visualisation and technological manufacturing process. Henry van de Velde, the Belgian architect insisted that ‘crafts were the great creative reservoir for the future. [35] The definition and theories of craftsmanship Historically in the creation of architecture, each form of knowledge was in the making and designing as one holistic activity. The definition of an architect stems from its origins as a chief builder: â€Å"Etymologically derived from the Latin architectus, itself derived from the Greek arkhitekton (arkhi-, chief + tekton, builder)†[36] The skilled craftsmanship of the builder came from the stonemason craft, â€Å"an imaginative and creative designer on one hand, who was comprehensively and intimately familiar, at the same time, with the means by which his design could be brought to realisation in actual stone and morter.†[37] Using tools as extensions of the hand, the chief builder with a high degree of knowledge and skill ensured a synthesis between tool, material, structure and form. Malcolm McCullough (who is he?) defines a tool (When?) as ‘a moving entity whose use is initiated and actively guided by a human being, for whom it acts as an extension, towards a specific purpose. However, he clarifies what influences perceptions of craft in work as the ‘degree of personal participation, more than any degree of independence from machine technology.[38] Craft involves a union of the hand, tool and mind; craftsmanship arising from manual skill, training and experience. Juhani Pallasmaa argues that the skilled practice of a craft involves imagination of the hand. This skilled practice is at its highest art when it is working from existing knowledge, a ‘continuous meeting and joining of the hands of successive generations. This generational knowledge, of knowing how to apply craft, has came from relaying on the traditional cultures daily spheres of work and life were an ‘endless passing of the hand skills and their product on to others. [39] key point here is also succession at its highest art when it is working from existing knowledge generational knowledge/ experience /- better still ‘know how but is that applicable to ‘new craft? ummmmm interesting Show acknowledge pt new craft doesnt have same involvement, good desiner still basic knowledge cloth. May lose out, stil managing There are various viewpoints about the interaction of the bodily action of the hand and the imagination. Pallasmaa argues that: â€Å"The craftsman needs to develop specific relationships between thought and making, idea and execution, action and matter, learning and performance, self-identity and work, pride and humility. The craftsman need to embody the tool or instrument, internalize the nature of the material and eventually turn him/herself into his/her own product, either material or immaterial.† [40] In examining the value of craft inherent in artisanal work and design, it is arguable that a joint effort of manual work and technology can produce a high standard of results. From my travels in India and Nepal it wasnt uncommon to find manual work that is not merely artisanal but in fact comes very close to industrial work. Eg?- Tadao Ando reflects on how the digital age has modified his design process, feeling the brain and hands work together, the hand an ‘extension of the thinking process, however you ‘cannot ignore the creativity that computer technology can bring. While acknowledging the new kind of creativity, he realises the important in being ‘able to move between those different worlds.[41] Issey Miyake is under the opinion that the ‘joint power of technology and manual work enables us to revive the warmth of the human hand. While never forgetting the importance of tradition, Miyakes concept of ‘Making Things involves creating things that make ‘life more agreeable in todays v interestingsociety and less burdensome in tomorrows. He concludes that technology is not the most important thing: ‘it is always our brains, our thoughts, out hands, our bodies which express the most essential things, the foundation of all expression and the emotion they can provide.†[42] Indent left 1.27cm It is arguable that a discourse in craft and design can only lead to ultimate failure within architecture and its wider implications. !! in architecture or where? Richard Sennetts ‘the Craftsman shows how historical divisions between craftsman and artist, maker and user, technique and expression, practice and theory leads to a disadvantage for the individual and society as a whole. Sennett realises that a consideration of the past lives of crafts and craftsmen show us ways of working, using tools, acquiring skills and thinking about materials. However he argues for more value to craftsmanship than a mere technical ability, raising ethical questions about the craftsmans stance. This raises the question Does the designing and making in the spirit of the craftsman entail the skilled application of contemporary as well as functional tools? Is this your question or his? Not clear here While Ando uses architecture to reconcile the logic and spirit of new technologies, he realises â €˜that people always relate to the spirit of the place, or the spirit of the time. We are reminded that our cities themselves are more important than individual reputations and accomplishments. This is emphasized with Aldo Rossis claim that â€Å"places are stronger than people.†[43] legends, rituals and and genetics outlive any building silly Rossi but of course when you are a fascist power/ful structures are naturally more important than human life.- what do you believe in this- will see in conclusion Some have set forward the argument that is the architects role to unite construction, purpose and place. John Tuomey sets a clear demonstration of his desire for: getting feeling that drifting into PLACE may be dissipating argument of dissertation this section is called The possibility of craft within textile architecture- need to stay focused think comment about ‘strategy in Tuomeys quote is useful since its a shift from craft as ‘manual grafting to craft as ‘strategic thinking- very interesting the crafting occurs then within both the process and the product think I might bring this into my next paper- will reference you ORLA for inspiration ! â€Å"a way of thinking which would provide an integration between construction and the site, a re-casting of the redundant craft condition which by tradition would exploit local materials and harness indigenous skillsembedding an initial sense of strategy which could remain evident in the eventual experience of an actual building.†[44] Architecture needs mechanisms that allow it to become connected to culture. Tuomeys greatest insight is to declare â€Å"we are agents in the continuity of architectural culture†. He uses professional knowledge and experience to realise the choices architects face are not â€Å"the reaction of an individual moment, but the exercise of an established craft in the continuity of time†. I agree only 50% with this since I think Architecture has been exclusive and elitist and needs to deconstruct its genealogy at times- again very interesting Architecture can be viewed rationally and historically, its composite nature in structure, function and physical state combined with cultural, political and temporal aspects. Is this a sentence Architecture develops through new innovations connecting these forces, manifesting itself in new aesthetic compositions and affects. The most successful of which provide expressions that are contemporary, yet whose effects are resilient in time. Well said The question remains, will new effects of innovative detailing, experimental use of materials overcome the modernist failure to â€Å"visually soften or improve with age.†[45] As remarked by Alvar Aalto; â€Å"it is not what a building looks like on the day it is opened but what it is like thirty years later that matters.†[46] It is clear that craftsmanship is viewed in its preoccupation of the present, yet depends, as commented by Tony Fretton, on â€Å"relations between innovation and past events, between individual and collective activity.† [47] Architecture has had to adapt to the change caused by the industry and manufacturing, the individual genius, politics and the rhetoric at some level. It could be said in every historical age it is the people who aid change; they develop the analysis and ideal to what architecture should be. This can result in a tyranny as stated by William Curtis(date); â€Å"Detractors resorted to monolithic caricatures, blaming the mythical ‘modernism for everything from mindless materialism, to the destruction of national identity, to the construction of unbelievable housing schemes.†[48] This view is enforced by Alvar Aalto; â€Å"The architecture revolution, like all revolutions, begins with enthusiasm and ends in some form of Dictatorship.†[49] H owever it is individuals who can also move us on to create statements about the way the world should be, through forms, light, space and material. Think you need to rehease whay you were saying in this section and why as a reader I can get each statement but not the overall argument perhaps some mini conclusion at end of sections or re-statement of argument This again points out, emphasises Review of the development of Contemporary Textile Designs through Architecture Case Studies By the mid-twentieth century, largely influenced by the work of Frei Otto, a pioneer in the creation of tensile fabric structures, new developments began in the area of self-supporting membrane structures. Textile construction began ‘taking on a permanence, as an alternative to classical architecture, which it had never seen before.[50] His design for the Munich Olympic Stadium, set â€Å"new standards of material performance and aesthetic in textile architecture with tent, net, pneumatic and suspended constructions.[51] Through the use of technological advancement, pneumatic structure Relationship Between Textiles and Architecture Relationship Between Textiles and Architecture The Reconciliation of Craft in Architecture as Facilitated by Textiles Abstract This dissertation analyses the enduring relationship between architecture and textiles. Using textiles as a facilitator, the wider relationship between craft and architecture will be explored. The link between architecture and textiles harkens back to an age when woven fibers provided the primitive dwelling of man, developed in various forms throughout history. The significance of this relationship will be examined in particular through the views of nineteenth century architect Gottfried Semper and twentieth century textile artist Anni Albers. With technological advancement in the age of industrialisation, the apparent discourse and perceptions of textile use within the realm of architecture is explored. The distinction between textile use in art and architecture leads to the discussion of surface and structure within the built environment. The question as to what extent tactile and textile based materials allow us to humanise our built environment will be examined. It could be argued that the development of indigenous design has now caught up with the pace of the twenty-first centurys needs and desire for communication and manufacturing. Architecture has reached a point where the contradiction between structure and ornament is no longer apparent. Ornamentation has now become an option, not just an unnecessary expense. A critical re-examination in attitude to that of the twentieth century ‘ornament is a crime, aided by digitalisation is reviving textiles from its confines in the interior to a more multifunctional and overall structural state. It is arguable that this re-examination in attitude can lead to a reconciliation of craft within architecture. In examining the definition of craft within architecture, this dissertation will explore historical and contemporary aspects of designing and making in the process of creating buildings. The future of textiles in architecture is being pioneered in contemporary design. Particular focus is given to the concepts, forms, patterns, materials, processes, technologies and practices that are being produced with the collaboration of textile architecture. While there is wide recognition for the visual aspect of textile in architecture, new aspects of tactile tectonics, sensuous and soft constructivism are growing acclaim. There is much evidence to suggest that the preoccupation of textile in contemporary design challenges traditional perception and the very structure of architecture itself. The conclusion will argue that by applying the traditional idea of craftsmanship in the knowledge of designing and making as one holistic activity to new developments within textile inspired procedures, craft can be reconciled within architecture, as Seamus Heaney speaks of, ‘two orders of knowledge, the practical and the poetic.[1] This can in turn transform contemporary building processes at a level suitable for todays challenges in society and culture. This raises possibilities of how the concepts of the avant-garde designs of many of todays more innovative architecture can be used and realised in the present state and future of architecture and the city. Key words: textiles, humanise, visual, tactile, conceptual, hybrid, digital augmented-processes, making, craftsmanship History, origin and relationship between textiles and architecture The relationship between textiles and architecture starts with corresponding beginning. Their vast history starts from the role of providing shelter, shade and protection in the building envelope, the ‘skin, originating from crudely stitched animal skins. The history, form and expression of physical woven construction and the use of membranes exist from the light tent structures of human habitation. The significance of the connection between the two disciplines allows and carries ‘complex imprints of geographical, cultural, social and personal influences.'[2] Textiles are a powerful medium, rich with symbolic meaning and aesthetic significance. They remain ‘sources of communication and manifestations of power, fibrous forms consisting in present day ‘fashions, vehicles, interior textiles, communication technologies and cutting-edge architecture'[3]. As people became more settled, and with the erection of more solid dwellings, textile use in architecture became somewhat neglected and confined to the interiors. There is the question of the practicality as to what extent textiles could continue to be used for weather and visual protection after the development of mechanisms and insulation within the built environment. Some traditional textile materials and structure have continued to be used to present day in some parts of the world; examples including coverings over markets and stalls and basic protection such as an umbrella in Nepal as shown below: A review of the work of the nineteenth century German architect and theoretician Gottfried Semper (1803-1879) points to the significance of textiles and architecture. Semper remains certain that the ‘beginning of buildings coincides with the beginning of textiles.[4] Throughout his work, Semper gave emphasis to textiles, offering a western perspective on his interpretations of the origin of architecture. He maintained that textile processes were the principal element, from which the ‘earliest basic structural artefact was that of the knot'[5]. Semper goes as far as to state that architecture originated from the primordial need to distinguish interior and exterior spaces with dividers, ‘fencing made of branches, for example, or hanging tapestries of woven grasses.'[6] Semper showed a high level of understanding of textile arts, its adaptability, transformable state and functional elements, seeking to: â€Å"Transform raw materials with the appropriate properties into products, whose common features are great pliancy and considerable absolute strength, sometimes serving in threaded and banded forms as bindings and fastenings, sometimes used as pliant surfaces to cover, to hold, to dress, to enclose, and so forth†[7] There is much evidence to suggest that textiles share an indissoluble links with architecture, dress and the ‘fabric of society.'[8] Sempers theorys on fabric encompasses his principle of ‘bekelidungsprinzip (dressing), that rather than an abstract skin, the fabric and faà §ade of an architectural space is a functional part of the structure, ‘a tectonic figuration conceived according to the purpose and convenience of the use expected from a building.'[9] His ideas of the relationship between the architectural faà §ade as a dressing and skin refer to how cloth could be used to transform the human figure. However, Semper understood a ‘buildings aesthetic, symbolic and even spiritual significance to reside in its decorative surface.'[10] He believed that over time, memory informed building types, retaining the ‘symbolic forms of their earliest architectural predecessors. He believed the geometric patterns of brick and stone walls were ‘an active mem ory of the ancient weavings from which they were derived. [11] This leads us to the perception of tactile and textile qualities within the built environment. Attitudes and perceptions towards tactile and textile use in the built environment The previous chapter emphasises the importance of textile as a structure, distinguisher between the interior and exterior and establishing a sense of place. While he is adamant about the relevance of textiles within architecture, it is arguable that for centuries the value of textiles as a material was reduced to little significance. Furthermore, textiles can be seen to have been largely excluded from use in a majority of architecture theory and production. It could be argued that one aspect of textiles being somewhat dismissed within the realm of architecture is a result of architecture being portrayed as exclusive and elitist. The separation between textiles and architecture can be seen as dating form the Renaissance. There existed prejudicial distinctions between the importance of ‘minor arts such as craft and textiles, and the ‘major arts of architecture. Distinctions as the art critic Barbara Rose states in New York Magazine, 1972, ‘imposed at the end of the Mi ddle Ages when the guilds disappeared to be replaced by the Renaissance academies.'[12] While movements such as Art Nouveau and the Arts and Crafts pointed towards architecture that had a direct relationship with arts, the discourse between crafts could be seen to be at its highest point during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries with the event of industrialisation and modernism. The modernist purist concept lay in the emphasis on purism and functionalism of the architecture itself. It can be argued that the architectural focus on rationalism began to isolate and neglect the spiritual and humanising qualities of a building. The conflicting aspects between the modern movement and a lack of humanistic architecture can be seen through various sources. Adolf Loos twentieth century manifesto stating the removal of ornamentation is synonymous with ‘the evolution of culture'[13], had a large impact on the development of our built environment. Some feel that this restricted us from: â€Å"A language in which visual thoughts, worldly ideas, communal ethos, and memories may be directly deposited and communicated within the substance of material objects.†[14] While architects such as Le Corbusier clearly expressed their rejection of ornament, believing in that ‘form follows function, contradictions can be clearly seen with his passion and participation in the tapestry revival. Tapestries have proved an impacting force in the discussion of textiles and architecture. While it is arguable that the high period of tapestry of art can be acknowledged to be the medieval era, new developments in the late 1920s, ‘instead of a woven picture on a wall, tapestry became a wall'[15]. He considered them a ‘mural-nomad a portable mural. The addition of hanging woven reliefs after the modernist era can be seen as an attempt to â€Å"humanise the ‘brutalist architecture of the 70s.† [16] A leading figure in avant-garde tapestry is maker Tadek Beutlich, originally from Poland. His work below, ‘Archangel is eight-foot wide, feathers made out of sisal and other fibres, portraying his mastered technique of weaving, braiding, wrapping, plaiting, ravelling and unravelling. His display of enormous weavings and fiber based installations of such scale and tactile nature, bringing into question the industry versus the hand. Some textile arts can be seen as architectural by encompassing the surface they are attached to with such scale and magnitude. Sheila Hicks wall hanging shows how thread begins to take form of a structure, manipulated and composed like a ‘single brick transformed through structural multiplication into a wall'[17]. The French philosopher Claude Levi Strauss goes as far as to comment on Hicks work that: â€Å"Nothing better than this art could provide altogether the adornment and the antidote for the functional, utilitarian architecture in which we are sentenced to dwell.† The Bauhaus school, renowned for its promotion of a new architectural style, was actually founded for the arts and crafts. However emphasis passed to materials and construction in order to meet the social and technological requirements of the twentieth-century architecture and industrial design. Anni Albers is an example of a weaver at the Bauhaus whose tapestries reflect the chance and spirit of the time. It is arguable that as the ‘ethical and intellectual commitments were made and new materials and processes embraced, visceral and emotional aspects diminished. However the Bauhaus remains an important influence in the expression of materials and structure, rediscovering the ‘importance of expressing texture, structure, and broken colour and in finding new aspects of pattern with the vertical-horizontal format of woven cloth'[18]. Through an investigation between the similarities that exist between the art of weaving and the realisation of architecture, it is clear that the concepts overlap. Both of the nineteenth and twentieth century theorists Semper and Anni Albers, expressed how the similarities between architects and weavers go beyond surface appearance. Textiles within a space can affect the atmosphere, light, climate, acoustics and spatial arrangements. It is recognised that quality can be achieved by relating the physical properties of their work with aesthetic implications and the inherent and underlying aspect of structure. Anni Albers reinforces the architects and weavers common interests: â€Å"Surface quality of material, that is matià ¨re, being mainly a quality of appearance, is an aesthetic quality and therefore a medium of the artist; while quality of inner structure is, above all, a matter of function and therefore the concern of the scientist and engineer. Sometimes material surface together with material structure are the main components of a work; in textile works for instance, specifically in weavings or, on another scale, in works of architecture†[19] (really interesting but itsnt is also an indictment that we dont accept that surface also requires inherent structure) Albers reinforces the importance of textiles within the future of architecture, stating that â€Å"similarities between structural principles of weaving and those of architecture â€Å"textiles, so often no more than an after thought in planning, might take a place again as a contributing thought† [20]. Textile revival For the last several decades, expanded by recent technological advances in textiles, the craft of using textiles conceptually and visually has been gaining recognition, reframing its domestic connotations and the confines of the interior. The next generation of textiles is ‘heralded by technological interfaces, programmable surfaces and architectonic capabilities.'[21] A rejection of European modernism and ideas of universality, textiles as a craft is covering new conceptual ground. Textiles is forging an ever closer relationship with architecture, the two disciplines merging with surface and structure. New sources of sustainable materials are providing another aspect into how the human body is experiences and the urban environment built. Computer technology is inviting new relationships between craft and architecture: â€Å"By exploiting the singular meanings of textile forms, structure, and processes, these textile artists are sometimes placed outside the general art discourse.†[22] Textiles can be described as a medium â€Å"without clear, self-defining boundaries or limitations.†[23] Architects and artists from the 1990s have shown increased vigour in unravelling the essential nature of textiles. Having recaptured with the historical importance of textiles, their attention turned to infusing the same level of emphasis into textiles within the built environment. Some have commented on the flexibility and adaptability of the medium, acting â€Å"as a vacuum sucking up new materials, techniques, and modes of expression. It has changed its form, size, psychology, and philosophical stance.†[24] What unifies designers and artists as a driving force in the creative field of surface design is their enthusiasm for the dimensional possibilities inherent in cloth. There is a fascination by some about the idea of cloth holding the memory of action performed on it; â€Å"It is for each generation to expand the vocabulary of approaches to cloth.†[25] This aspect of working with fabric is directed towards the history and memory of fabric, focusing on expressionism; an emotional connection to objects and a tactile spatial awareness. It is arguable that the uniqueness of the craft of textiles in relation to design and architecture lays in the personal input from the individual maker. Critics and scholars have â€Å"long recognised that the quality of art lies in concept and quality of insight, not in materials and tools†. (state diff textile design +art, textile designers that design +someone else manufactures-how fit into argument ? ) Matthew Koumis highlights how the establishment of textiles applied in a space can differ according to Western and Japanese environments. Koumis points out that in the West a basic element in the hanging of tapestries was to decorate walls of brick or stone, modifying and softening the space. However, These walls didnt exist in traditional Japanese homes where structures were supported by wooden beams. Some argue that the ‘fasuma and shoj (made from wood and paper) exhibit ‘textile characteristics and they can take on ‘textile functions, ‘representing a further development of traditional textile membrane materials.[26] While Japanese houses do not have designated purposes, textiles or tactile surfaces can be used to designate the function of the space: â€Å"Their contents, and especially their design elements, vary according to the use of the room at any one time. Cloth is often involved in bringing about such changes.† [27] Ornamentation Decoration has been used throughout time to apply meaning and a sense of belonging in shelters. It could be argued that textiles as a form of decoration plays a vital role in establishing a buildings identity. It can describe the function, visually define the spaces and offer up claims as to a sense of the owner or users personality. While cost factor and lack of funding in public arts can be seen as one element, artistic adornment has now reached a stage, aided by digitalisation, that can now be seen as a viable option and not just an unnecessary expense. There is a hope that this can again restore peoples pride in their environment and a representation of their culture. There is much argument to suggest that the diminished financial support for public art and corporate collections has led to: â€Å"the convergence of industrial and digital production techniques in textiles capture the essence of labor-intensive hand-craft that is lost or cannot be achieved due to economic conditions and symbolize a contemporary design spirit.† [28] A reversal in attitude towards Adolf Loos ‘Ornament is a Crime is taking place. As such, the work of artists, designers and architects are using technological advances that revive ornament and placing them at the forefront of design. Can you give evidence? And refs on this Designers such as Tord Boontje are reviving a new style of ornament taking the intention of pre-modern design and making it ‘new. His investigation into the relationship between materials, structures, and surfaces, fleshing out the relationship between craft, design and technology.[29] Boontje sees ‘design as a way of shaping the future of our world,[30] combining nature and culture, the oldest and latest materials and technologies, forms, functions and colour combinations, and the (most importantly) Be clear about why you are using him as a ref aesthetic of ornament. The computer programmer Andrew Allenson who has collaborated with Boontje, sees a relationship between craft and technology, â€Å"Architects and designers can get bogged down in professional management and policy. Tord shows you can be more concerned with process and integrity and self-belief. Ive always thought there is a similarity between craft and software.† [31] Again be sure what is improatnt about quote and why you need to use it this starts on one track and only comes to the track you want at the end Boontje has taken a new manifestation of function, understanding elements of design from a new point of view and rejoicing in the freedom it has engendered him. Engendered him to what? Like the architect and philospher†¦.Morris (William?), Boontje looks at history and acknowledges a wish for social engagement and the beauty of use based on a response to nature, but Boontje has, as †¦ says (date) â€Å"extended Morriss legacy by achieving globalised industrial production and embracing the latest technology.† [32] Fabric is used throughout Boontjes work with technical innovation, laser-cutting and digital printing. Due to the unpredictable nature of fabric with its elasticity and deformational properties, Boontje realises the difficulty in working with fabric. This unpredictability can also be turned to advantage, collaborating with Swiss and Japanese manufacturers to create a clear expression. Textile and paper are filtered throughout his work, multiple layers being manipulated to create soft definitions of space with nature acting as a dominant influence. Boontje emphasises the importance of textiles and its relationship to ourselves and the wider society; â€Å"For cloth, like the body, is a mediating surface through which we encounter the world.† [33] Boontje is also crossing the discipline between textiles into architecture, experimenting in ‘fabric room, as shown below. He states his fascination by ‘the way a draped fabric folds itself in very organic shapes, and realises the insulating properties of the cloth, providing ‘warmth in the winter and coolness in the summer. [34] Explain the relevance of this draw out the argument†¦ and does this sit under title digital ornamentation The possibility of craft within textile architecture Link textile + craft. Say textiles craft wider issues of how craft enhance environment. Applicable to textiles craftsmanship. End pt clear argument This dissertation will begin to examine the possibility of craft within textile architecture, first beginning with the definition of craftsmanship within architecture, to theories in relation to making with the hand and how the issue of craft resides with new technological advancement. Finally, I will come to a conclusion as to how the craft of textiles raises new possibilities towards a reconciliation of the traditional meaning of craftsmanship, combined with new methods and material matter through use of digital visualisation and technological manufacturing process. Henry van de Velde, the Belgian architect insisted that ‘crafts were the great creative reservoir for the future. [35] The definition and theories of craftsmanship Historically in the creation of architecture, each form of knowledge was in the making and designing as one holistic activity. The definition of an architect stems from its origins as a chief builder: â€Å"Etymologically derived from the Latin architectus, itself derived from the Greek arkhitekton (arkhi-, chief + tekton, builder)†[36] The skilled craftsmanship of the builder came from the stonemason craft, â€Å"an imaginative and creative designer on one hand, who was comprehensively and intimately familiar, at the same time, with the means by which his design could be brought to realisation in actual stone and morter.†[37] Using tools as extensions of the hand, the chief builder with a high degree of knowledge and skill ensured a synthesis between tool, material, structure and form. Malcolm McCullough (who is he?) defines a tool (When?) as ‘a moving entity whose use is initiated and actively guided by a human being, for whom it acts as an extension, towards a specific purpose. However, he clarifies what influences perceptions of craft in work as the ‘degree of personal participation, more than any degree of independence from machine technology.[38] Craft involves a union of the hand, tool and mind; craftsmanship arising from manual skill, training and experience. Juhani Pallasmaa argues that the skilled practice of a craft involves imagination of the hand. This skilled practice is at its highest art when it is working from existing knowledge, a ‘continuous meeting and joining of the hands of successive generations. This generational knowledge, of knowing how to apply craft, has came from relaying on the traditional cultures daily spheres of work and life were an ‘endless passing of the hand skills and their product on to others. [39] key point here is also succession at its highest art when it is working from existing knowledge generational knowledge/ experience /- better still ‘know how but is that applicable to ‘new craft? ummmmm interesting Show acknowledge pt new craft doesnt have same involvement, good desiner still basic knowledge cloth. May lose out, stil managing There are various viewpoints about the interaction of the bodily action of the hand and the imagination. Pallasmaa argues that: â€Å"The craftsman needs to develop specific relationships between thought and making, idea and execution, action and matter, learning and performance, self-identity and work, pride and humility. The craftsman need to embody the tool or instrument, internalize the nature of the material and eventually turn him/herself into his/her own product, either material or immaterial.† [40] In examining the value of craft inherent in artisanal work and design, it is arguable that a joint effort of manual work and technology can produce a high standard of results. From my travels in India and Nepal it wasnt uncommon to find manual work that is not merely artisanal but in fact comes very close to industrial work. Eg?- Tadao Ando reflects on how the digital age has modified his design process, feeling the brain and hands work together, the hand an ‘extension of the thinking process, however you ‘cannot ignore the creativity that computer technology can bring. While acknowledging the new kind of creativity, he realises the important in being ‘able to move between those different worlds.[41] Issey Miyake is under the opinion that the ‘joint power of technology and manual work enables us to revive the warmth of the human hand. While never forgetting the importance of tradition, Miyakes concept of ‘Making Things involves creating things that make ‘life more agreeable in todays v interestingsociety and less burdensome in tomorrows. He concludes that technology is not the most important thing: ‘it is always our brains, our thoughts, out hands, our bodies which express the most essential things, the foundation of all expression and the emotion they can provide.†[42] Indent left 1.27cm It is arguable that a discourse in craft and design can only lead to ultimate failure within architecture and its wider implications. !! in architecture or where? Richard Sennetts ‘the Craftsman shows how historical divisions between craftsman and artist, maker and user, technique and expression, practice and theory leads to a disadvantage for the individual and society as a whole. Sennett realises that a consideration of the past lives of crafts and craftsmen show us ways of working, using tools, acquiring skills and thinking about materials. However he argues for more value to craftsmanship than a mere technical ability, raising ethical questions about the craftsmans stance. This raises the question Does the designing and making in the spirit of the craftsman entail the skilled application of contemporary as well as functional tools? Is this your question or his? Not clear here While Ando uses architecture to reconcile the logic and spirit of new technologies, he realises â €˜that people always relate to the spirit of the place, or the spirit of the time. We are reminded that our cities themselves are more important than individual reputations and accomplishments. This is emphasized with Aldo Rossis claim that â€Å"places are stronger than people.†[43] legends, rituals and and genetics outlive any building silly Rossi but of course when you are a fascist power/ful structures are naturally more important than human life.- what do you believe in this- will see in conclusion Some have set forward the argument that is the architects role to unite construction, purpose and place. John Tuomey sets a clear demonstration of his desire for: getting feeling that drifting into PLACE may be dissipating argument of dissertation this section is called The possibility of craft within textile architecture- need to stay focused think comment about ‘strategy in Tuomeys quote is useful since its a shift from craft as ‘manual grafting to craft as ‘strategic thinking- very interesting the crafting occurs then within both the process and the product think I might bring this into my next paper- will reference you ORLA for inspiration ! â€Å"a way of thinking which would provide an integration between construction and the site, a re-casting of the redundant craft condition which by tradition would exploit local materials and harness indigenous skillsembedding an initial sense of strategy which could remain evident in the eventual experience of an actual building.†[44] Architecture needs mechanisms that allow it to become connected to culture. Tuomeys greatest insight is to declare â€Å"we are agents in the continuity of architectural culture†. He uses professional knowledge and experience to realise the choices architects face are not â€Å"the reaction of an individual moment, but the exercise of an established craft in the continuity of time†. I agree only 50% with this since I think Architecture has been exclusive and elitist and needs to deconstruct its genealogy at times- again very interesting Architecture can be viewed rationally and historically, its composite nature in structure, function and physical state combined with cultural, political and temporal aspects. Is this a sentence Architecture develops through new innovations connecting these forces, manifesting itself in new aesthetic compositions and affects. The most successful of which provide expressions that are contemporary, yet whose effects are resilient in time. Well said The question remains, will new effects of innovative detailing, experimental use of materials overcome the modernist failure to â€Å"visually soften or improve with age.†[45] As remarked by Alvar Aalto; â€Å"it is not what a building looks like on the day it is opened but what it is like thirty years later that matters.†[46] It is clear that craftsmanship is viewed in its preoccupation of the present, yet depends, as commented by Tony Fretton, on â€Å"relations between innovation and past events, between individual and collective activity.† [47] Architecture has had to adapt to the change caused by the industry and manufacturing, the individual genius, politics and the rhetoric at some level. It could be said in every historical age it is the people who aid change; they develop the analysis and ideal to what architecture should be. This can result in a tyranny as stated by William Curtis(date); â€Å"Detractors resorted to monolithic caricatures, blaming the mythical ‘modernism for everything from mindless materialism, to the destruction of national identity, to the construction of unbelievable housing schemes.†[48] This view is enforced by Alvar Aalto; â€Å"The architecture revolution, like all revolutions, begins with enthusiasm and ends in some form of Dictatorship.†[49] H owever it is individuals who can also move us on to create statements about the way the world should be, through forms, light, space and material. Think you need to rehease whay you were saying in this section and why as a reader I can get each statement but not the overall argument perhaps some mini conclusion at end of sections or re-statement of argument This again points out, emphasises Review of the development of Contemporary Textile Designs through Architecture Case Studies By the mid-twentieth century, largely influenced by the work of Frei Otto, a pioneer in the creation of tensile fabric structures, new developments began in the area of self-supporting membrane structures. Textile construction began ‘taking on a permanence, as an alternative to classical architecture, which it had never seen before.[50] His design for the Munich Olympic Stadium, set â€Å"new standards of material performance and aesthetic in textile architecture with tent, net, pneumatic and suspended constructions.[51] Through the use of technological advancement, pneumatic structure

Charles Augustin de Coulomb :: biographies bio

Charles Augustin Coulomb was born on June 14th, 1736 in Angoulà ªme, France. Henry Coulomb, Charles' father, had a military career, but left that for the government. His mother, Catherine Bajet, was related to a very wealthy family, the de Sà ©nac's. Many say that Henry Coulomb got caught up in some financial mishaps which led to him losing most all of his money. During Coulomb's younger years his family moved from Angoulà ªme on to Paris. Here, Charles attended many lectures at the College Mazarin and also the College de France. His mom wanted him to be a medical doctor, but on the contrary, Charles wanted to go on and study mathematics. Since Charles disobeyed his mother, he was disowned and was forced to stay with his father over in Montpellier. During his stay he joined the second royal scientific society in France known as the scientific circle. Here he read many papers on mathematics and astronomy. It was a shame that he had no money to purchase a home of his own and continu e his scientific studies, but eventually he came to be a military engineer. He joined the military school at Mà ©zià ¨res in 1760. Here he formed many friendships which would later be important for his scientific work. Charles Bossut, his teacher at Mà ©zià ¨res and Jean Charles Borda where among them. After spending nearly nine years in Martinique as an engineer of the military Charles returned to France mostly due to ill health. In 1781 he entered the French Academy of Sciences where he was a part of the administration of waters and fountains, the reform of hospitals and the system of weights and measures. He was able to publish his paper in 1787 where he proved his famous Coulombs Law. Soon came the outbreak of the French Revolution and Charles decided to retire to a small cottage in Blois. Here he was able to devote his time to

The Mask in Lord of the Flies

Ralph demonstrates many different dimensions in his character in the first four chapters of Lord of the Flies, by William Golding. Ralph is portrayed as the novels protagonist but unintentionally sways towards evil at some points in the novel. Golding describes him as the largest boy on the island, but has a â€Å"mildness about his mouth that proclaims no devil† (page 7). His size, demeanor and use of the conch shell prove him to be the chosen leader of the group of boys on the island. He is the direct representation of order, leadership, civilization and innocence.Ralphs innocence is shown early on in the novel when he is unable to comprehend why the other boys chase their barbaric instincts and focus solely on killing the piglet, whereas he rather work towards a common goal, and proceeds by organizing a signal fire to be made and building shelters. His innocence is also proved when he accidently spills Piggy’s nickname, which he was not to tell anyone. When Piggy get s upset over this, Ralph apologizes and shrugs it off not knowing the damage he unintentionally caused Piggy.Ralph discovers a use for the conch shell; he brings the boys together and discusses how they should proceed, with building shelters, a fire and hunting. Ralph takes into account the litluns fears of the beastie, by putting great importance on building shelters to provide a sense of protection and ‘home’. As Oldsey and Weintraub state in The Art of William Golding, Ralph occupies himself â€Å"doing what must be done rather than what one would rather do† (page 22). Proving him to be the protagonist in The Lord of the Flies.

Batterer Treatment Programs

Domestic violence and especially battering has been identified as a form of aggression in the society for decades now. Even though, battering has been categorized as a criminal by the criminal justice system, its treatment has been handled differently from other forms of aggression. Over the past two decades, efforts have been applied to address the problem of wife battering.The development of treatment programs has been rapid which has subsequently increased batterer’s right to programming. Battering is inevitably associated with family violence and the general societal violence.This means that the existence of battering will continue unless the structures of power within the society is changed and thereby forbidding it. The change of the society alone is not enough to address the problem of battering. In addition to this change, individual involved in battering practices must also change (Mederos, 1999). The purpose of this paper is therefore to examine how the batterers can be changed. In particular, it aims at providing effective treatment programs that can be applied to address the problem of battering.The paper examines the roles that have been played by criminal justice in addressing battering problem and the existing treatment approaches that have been effectively applied to remedy this behavior. Criminal justice system intervention to battering There exist a number of criminal justice responses to battering. However, battering has continued for years due to the reluctance of the victims to report such cases to law enforcement agencies. There are a number of responses with regards to battering in the criminal justice realm which are triggered following reports of abuse.Arrest In the circumstance that it is proved beyond any reasonable doubt that an assault has been committed, then an arrest becomes mandatory. These mandatory arrests have significantly increased as reports of assault by victims of battering increase. However, many people have rais ed concerns about the effectiveness of arrests in reducing recidivism. It has been reported by certain research studies that arrests can only downgrade recidivism partly. This study has however been contracted arguing that effects of arrests on recidivism is limited.The debate over the effectiveness of arrests on recidivism will continue due to the lack of consensus on its impacts. In particular, the ineffectiveness of this approach has been witnessed in the slow prosecutions of batters, and thereby suggesting that these arrests are not adequately accompanied by convictions. Arrests without an efficient conviction do not deter future incidences of battering (Rusen, 1992). Prosecution The process of arrests should be followed subsequently with immediate prosecution after charges have been preferred against the batterer.In some cases, batterers may not be prosecuted but instead issued with restraining instructions. However, the effectiveness of arrests and prosecutions in deterring th e future occurrence of battering has been questioned by several researchers. Sufficient evidence has not been found to prove that prosecution of the offenders of battering reduces recidivism (Davis et al. , 1998). Sentencing Convicted batters are usually subjected to probations where they may be required to undergo treatment programs.It has been argued that it is impossible to distinguish the chances of recidivism with regards to cases which results to null prosecution, probation and incarceration. On the other hand, subjective battering to probation where they are subjected to treatment programs has been found to reduce recidivism. The criminal justice system has therefore been identified to be deficient in dealing with recidivism. There has been no significant relationship between recidivism and the prospect of arrests and punishment.This means that batters are not deterred from engaging in future battering by the possibility of being subjected to arrests and prosecution (Davis et al. , 1998). Approaches to batterers treatment programs There are several treatment programs available for batterers ranging from theoretical methods to forms of treatment. These programs include the Duluth approach and a program commonly referred to as New Leaf. Against this introduction, several theoretical approaches are examined together with fundamental models necessary for the treatment of batterers.These programs have not been proven to decisively reduce recidivism. However, they form a strong basis for examining the appropriate treatment mechanisms. The Duluth Model This was a community based response that was developed in Minnesota and comprised of several batterer detection and prevention groups within the society. This approach performed a coordinative role to the law enforcement agencies responsible for arrests, prosecution and batterer treatment programs. The batterers were subjected to either imprisonment or probation under stringent guidelines.The activities of the b atterer during this probation period were closely monitored. Such activities included attending to treatment programs. In addition, a close contact between the spouse of the batterer was maintained. In order to effectively respond to the problem of battering, prosecutorial agencies and the mental health institutions within the community closed worked as a unit. Thorough training was given to all the participants involved in the treatment process on batters under this model in order to equip them with adequate knowledge to understand what was involved in their work (Mederos, 1999).Under the Duluth model, the work of the male team leaders is not confined to interaction with the offenders of battering and their spouses. Part of their duty includes accounting for physical abuse by passing information to the relevant agencies. According to this model, abusive men usually use several obscure arguments to justify and legitimize their behavior. Treatment programs involve a number of video c lips and team dialogue with the intention of guiding the batterer in understanding the fundamental mythical beliefs regarding battering and thereby aid them in envisioning and defining non-abusive behaviors.The process of envisioning was accompanied with clear guidelines involving negotiations illustrating the basis of behavior in open relationships (Mederos, 1999). New Leaf program This program was developed to address the concerns of shelter women in Nova Scotia. The basis of this approach was that the shelter women needed assistance but the participation of shelter workers in this assistance was discouraged. As a result of this concern, males in the community intervened with the offenders of battering. This program involved and open group discussions which were organized weekly.The viewpoint of this program was that violence is feministic and a way of control. A thorough intake interview program was undertaken where the batterer was encouraged to change. The group leaders were in full control of the interview sessions and had an influential role in the lives of the batterers. The team leaders were constantly accessible to address the concerns of men and their spouses. Interventions included providing on-spot crisis resolution, visitation of offenders in prison, and unplanned visits to homes upon suspecting that there was danger of violence.However, these unannounced visits are not viewed as strange especially in the rural setting where it is the norm. This program had the advantage of intervening in high risk situations (Hanson & Whitman, 1995). Theoretical approaches The general approach to the treatment of batterer can classified into psychological, feminist and socio-cultural. The traditional intervention mechanisms for batterers focused mainly on the influence of psychological factors on violence. The problem of battering has a psychological dimension as abusive men usually blame their partners for the problems they are experiencing such as depression.T he depression can therefore lead them into substance abuse. Batterer treatment should therefore involve psychotherapeutic models. The socio-cultural method assumes that the battering is influenced by learned behavior. According to this approach, battering is learned within the society as there are inequalities in wealth control as well as societal structures which are biased in defining gender roles and therefore encourages leniency to battering. Treatment should therefore emphasize on unlearning where the batterers are encouraged to view violence as an unacceptable behavior within the society.In addition, the involvement of men in battering has been found to be as a result of attitude towards women. Intervention mechanisms should therefore include efforts in assisting batterers to change their attitudes. Feminist oriented batterer treatment strategies view battering as a social and political. According to this theory, battering is a consistent pattern of economic and sexual abuse. This approach therefore suggests that interventions to battering should address to root causes of battering. The feminist strategy in addition focuses on addressing the gender imbalances which are responsible for violent behavior (Dutton, 1998).Conclusion Developing batterer treatment programs within the society is quite challenging. However, there are fundamental factors that have effectively and efficiently contributed the treatment of batterers. Any approach to batterer treatment should be developed with adequate knowledge which is capable of achieving high standards of integrity. Reference: Davis, R. C. , Smith, B. E. , & Nickels, L. B. (1998). The deterrent effect of prosecuting domestic violence misdemeanors. Crime & Delinquency 44(3), 434-442. Dutton, D. G. (1998). 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